Since the French Revolution, liberalism stood for a representative Government through Parliament and the Constitution. It also stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges.
In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed which abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
Promoted a network of railways to stimulate mobility.
A New Conservatism after 1815
After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 the spirit of conservatism became strong. They believed that traditional Institutions like the monarchy, the church, social hierarchies, property and family - should be preserved.
Most conservatives realised from the changes by Napoleon, that modernisation could in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy. A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
Treaty of Vienna (1815) :
In 1815, representatives of the European powers met in Vienna to draft a settlement for Europe. This Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.The delegates of the European powers draft the Treaty of Vienna of 1815.
The Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was an agreement between Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia to create a settlement for Europe.
The aim of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was to undo the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.
The Provisions of Treaty of Vienna.
(i) The Bourbon dynastywas restored to power
(ii) A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.
(iii) France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon
(iv) German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was not affected by this treaty.
(v) Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy.
(vi) In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate criticism and dissent. They imposed censorship laws to control newspapers, books, plays and songs. The memory of the French Revolution nonetheless continued to inspire liberals. One of the major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticised the new conservative order, was freedom of the press.
The Revolutionaries.
After 1815, many liberal-nationalists went underground due to the fear of repression. Secret societies were formed in many European states to spread their ideas and train revolutionaries.
For example - Giuseppe Mazzini was the Italian revolutionary. He was born in Genoa in 1807. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. He founded two underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne. Following Mazzini model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order.
The Age of Revolutions : 1830 - 1848
Liberalism and nationalism was associated with revolution in many regions of Europe. These revolutions were led by the liberal-nationalists belonging to the educated middle-class.
July revolution
The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830.
The Bourbon kings were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries.
A constitutional monarchy was installed in their place whose head was Louis Philippe.
Metternich once remarked, ‘When France sneezes, the rest of
Europe catches cold.’
The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from Netherlands.
Greek revolution
Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
Struggle for independence in Greece started in 1821.
The treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation.
Romantic artists and poets criticised the glorification of reason and science. They focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people (das volk).
Through collection of folk songs, poetry and dances true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was popularised
National feelings were kept alive in Poland through music and language.
Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music.
Language also played an important role in developing national sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. The clergy in Poland used Polish language for religious instruction and began to use as a weapon of national resistance.
Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.
In the first half of the nineteenth century, the ratio of population growth was higher than employment creation.
The small producers faced stiff competition due to the import of cheap machine-made goods from England.
Peasants still suffered under the burden of feudal dues and obligations in some regions in Europe.
The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread poverty in town and country.
Revolt of weavers
Contractors supplied weavers of Silesia raw material and gave them orders for finished textiles but reduced their payments. So in 1845, weavers of Silesia revolted against contractors.
On 4 June at 2 p.m. a large crowd of weavers revolted and demand from contractor higher wages.
They were treated badly and threatended by contractor
One group of them forced entry into the house, broke its windows, furniture, porcelain, the other group entry into the storeroom and looted the clothes and cut into pieces them. The contractor run away with his family.
After 24 hours he returned with the army and after this eleven weavers were shot in the encounter with the army.
Revolt in 1848 of peris.
In 1848 population of Paris revolted due to food shortages and widespread unemployment.
Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
As a result National Assembly proclaimed a Republic.
Granted right to vote to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work.
The Revolution of the Liberals
In many European countries(Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro, Hungarian Empire) in 1848 the revolution led by the educated middle classes. They combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
Their demands were the creation of a nation-state based on parliamentary principles, a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.
May Revolution (Frankfurt parliament)
A large number of political associations whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives assembled in the Church of St Paul.
They drafted a constitution for a German nation According to this constitution the natition was to be headed by a monarchy which was under to a parliament control.
Women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery in the Frankfurt parliament.They were denied right to vote during the election of the Assembly.
When the representatives offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, (King of Prussia) he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
The opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger and the social basis of parliament was destroyed. The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and artisans and as a resuilt lost their support.
In the end army were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.
Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements but they could not restore the old order.
Monarchs realised that the revolution could only be ended by granting concessions to the revolutionaries.
Hence, the serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
The Making of Germany and Italy
Unification of Germany
It started with liberal Nationalist movement of 1848 with the formation of Frankfurt Parliament however the attempts failed.
After that chief Minister of Prussia Otto von Bismark with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracytook on the leadership of the movementfor National unification .
Bismarck led three wars over a period of seven years with Austria, Denmark & France that ended up with Prussian Victory.
Finally completed the process of unification.
The Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor In January 1871
Unification of Italy
Italy was divided into seven states before unification, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
In the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini attempted to unify Italy. He formed a secret organization called Young Italy. But both the revolt of 1831 and 1848 failed.
After the failure of both the 1831 and 1848 uprisings , the responsibility of unifying the Italian states fell on King Victor Emmanuel II, ruler of Sardinia-Piedmont.
He handed over the responsibility to his Chief Minister Cavour who made a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces in 1859.
Later, South Italy and Kingdom of two Sicilies were captured with the help of Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860
In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
The Strange Case of Britain
There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century.
The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions.
Due to more power and wealth of English nation it was able to take control of other islands of nations.
The English Parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688 and created a nation state with Britain at center.
The act of union 1707 between England and Scotland that resulted in formation of 'United Kingdom of Great Britain' .
Ireland was a country divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English helped the Protestants and Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
Finally A new ‘British nation’ was established through the propagation of dominant English culture.
The symbols of the new Britain were the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language .
Visualising the Nation
In 18th and 19th century artists portrayed the nation as a female figures.
The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life
This female figure became an allegory of the nation.
Allegory – When an abstract idea is expressed through a person or a thing, is called allegory. An allegorical story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolic
Marianne was the female allegory of France. Which was a popular Christian name.
Her characteristics were also those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade.
Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the "national symbol of unity"
Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
Germania was the female allegory of the German nation.
Germania was wearing a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak was a symbol of bravery.
Nationalism and Imperialism
End of nineteenth century, nationalism lost his its idealistic liberal democratic sentiment.
After 1871, the Balkan region was the main cause of nationalist tension in Europe.
The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation, whose inhabitants were known as the Slavs.
Balkans included modern-day Romania, Macedonia, Croatia, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, and Slovenia.
A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
The Balkans became a very volatile region due to the growth of romantic nationalism and the fall of the Ottoman Empire.
During this period, one by one, its European nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.
During this period, the European powers such as Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary competed to gain own control over the Balkans. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.
Which one of states was ruled by an Italian princely house before unification of Italy?
Sardinia-Piedmont
What of conservative regimes were set up in 1815 in Europe?
Autocratic
Who hosted the Congress in Vienna in 1815.
Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
Name the french artist who prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of a world.
Frederic Sorrieu.
Which of the following revolutions is called as the first expression of ‘Nationalism’?
French Revolution is called as the first expression of ‘Nationalism’.
What was the major issue taken up by the liberal nationalists?
The liberal nationalists took the major issue of freedom of press.
Name the female allegory representing the Republic of France.
Marianne was the female allegory representing the republic of France.
Name the treaty of 1832 that recognized Greece as an independent nation.
The Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.
Who remarked “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold”?
“When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold” was remarked by Duke Mettemich.
Who founded the secret society, ‘Young Italy’ during the 1830s?
During the 1830s, the secret society called the Young Italy was founded by Giuseppe Mazzini.
Which nation was identifiable in the revolutionary tricolour in Sorrier's utopian vision ?
France nation was identifiable in the revolutionary tricolor in Sorrieu's utopian vision.
Mention the proclamation of the French Revolution.
The proclamation of the French Revolution was “the people would constitute the nation and shape its destiny.”
What was the result of the first upheaval that took place in France in July 1830?
It resulted in the overthrowing of the Bourbon kings and installation of a constitutional monarch with Louis Philippe as the head.
Who was proclaimed the German emperor in the ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871?
In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
What was the strong demand of the emerging middle classes in Europe during 19th century?
The strong demand of the emerging middle classes in Europe during 19th century was constitutionalism with national unification.
What was the main aim of the revolutionaries of Europe during the years following 1815?
The main aim of the revolutionaries of Europe was to oppose the monarchical form of government and fight for liberty and freedom.
What was the major change that occurred in the political and constitutional scenario due to French revolution in Europe?
It led to the transfer of sovereignty/power from the monarchy to a body of French citizens
Name the event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe in 1830-1848?
The Greek war of independence mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe in 1830-1848.
What was the meaning of liberalism in early 19th century in Europe?
Liberalism in early 19th century in Europe meant freedom for the individual, equality before law, government by consent and freedom of markets.
What was the main aim of the French Revolutionaries?
Their main aim was to transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French people by creating a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
What was the main aim of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815?
The main aim of the "Treaty of Vienna", 1815 was to undo all the changes that were brought about in Europe during the reign of Napoleon and Napoleonic Wars
What is Napoleonic Coade ?
Napoleon introduced the Civil Code in the year 1804 which was also called as the Napoleon Code. It was introduced in order to abolish the privileges which were based on birth, to establish equality before the law and to give the right to property to all.
Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. Analyse the statement with arguments.
Or Explain any three features of napoleonic code
(i) Established equality before law
(ii) Abolished all privileges based on birth
(iii) Granted the right to property to French citizens
(iv) Simplified administrative divisions
(v) Abolished feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom,
(vi) Removed restrictions on guilds in towns
(vii) Improved transport and communication.
Explain any four ideas of Liberal Nationalists in the economic sphere.
(i) liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
(ii) In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed which abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
(iii)Promoted a network of railways to stimulate mobility.
Describe any three economic hardships faced by Europe in 1830s.
Or “The decade of 1830 had brought great economic hardship in Europe”. Support the statement with arguments.
(i) In the first half of the nineteenth century, the ratio of population growth was higher than employment creation.
(ii) The small producers faced stiff competition due to the import of cheap machine-made goods from England.
(iii) Peasants still suffered under the burden of feudal dues and obligations in some regions in Europe.
(iv)The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread poverty in town and country
How had revolutionaries spread their ideas in many European States after 1815? Explain with examples?
After1815, many liberal-nationalists went underground due to the fear of repression. Secret societies were formed in many European states to spread their ideas and train revolutionaries.
For example - Giuseppe Mazzini became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. He founded two underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne. Following Mazzini model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives.
Describe the process of unification of Germany.
It started with liberal Nationalist movement of 1848 with the formation of Frankfurt Parliament however the attempts failed.
After that chief Minister of Prussia Otto von Bismark with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracytook on the leadership of the movementfor National unification .
Bismarck led three wars over a period of seven years with Austria, Denmark & France that ended up with Prussian Victory.
Finally completed the process of unification.
The Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor In January 1871
How did the local people in the areas conquered by Napoleon react to French rule? Explain.
The local people in the areas conquered by Napoleon had a mixed reaction to French rule.
The businessman and the small producers welcomed the economic reforms introduced by Napoleon.
Initially, the French armies were recognized as the messenger of liberty but later on it was realised that the administrative reforms cannot go hand in hand with the political reform.
The Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies were not liked by the people.
How had Napoleonic code exported to the regions under French control? Explain with examples.
Describe any three reforms introduced by Napoleon in the territories he conquered.
(i) Napoleon introduced the Civil Code in the year 1804.. It was introduced in order to abolish the privileges which were based on birth, to establish equality before the law and to give the right to property to all.
(ii) This Code was exported to the regions under French control In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
(iii) He also introduced a system of uniform weight and measures and a system of common currency for the nation which helped the people in trade from one region to another.
(iii) He had changed the system of transport and communications and made it more advanced.
Describe the process of 'Unification of Italy.
The commitment, participation, and effort of three great leaders, Mazzini,Cavour, and Garibaldi, resulted in the unification of Italy.
In the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini attempted to unify Italy. He formed a secret organization called Young Italy. But he failed.
After the failure of both the 1831 and 1848 uprisings , the responsibility of unifying the Italian states fell on King Victor Emmanuel II, ruler of Sardinia-Piedmont.
He handed over the responsibility to his Chief Minister Cavour who made a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces in 1859.
Later, South Italy and Kingdom of two Sicilies were captured with the help of Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860
In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
Analyse the measures and practices introduced by the French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
Or Describe any four measures which were introduced by the French
Revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
Or Describe the events of French Revolution which had influenced the people belonging to other parts of Europe.
(i) The idea of la Patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen): The idea of la Patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) in the French Revolution signify that community should enjoy equal rights under the constitution of the country.
(ii) Tricolour French flag: French citizens chose tricolour flag to replace royal standard. The colors of the flag are blue, white, and red.
(iii) Election of Estate generals and formation of the national assembly: Estates General was renamed the National Assembly and was elected by a group of active citizens.
(iv) Formulation of uniform laws for citizens : A centralised administrative system was put in place and it made uniform laws for all citizens of the entire nation.
(v) Abolition of internal custom duties: Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
" The first clear expression of nationalism came with ' french Revolution' in 1789''. Explain the statement.
(i) The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. The French revolution proclaimed that“the people would constitute the nation and shape its destiny.”
(ii) The French revolutionaries introduced various measures to create a sense of collective identity among the people.
The idea of la Patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen)
Tricolor French flag in place of the royal standard
Election of Estate generals and formation of the national assembly:
Formulation of uniform laws for citizens :
Abolition of internal custom duties:
Making French the common language.
Composition of hymns and oaths for the French nation
